There were rebellions against Umayyad and Abbasid governors for 140 years (712-850 AD) and a civil war against Arghoons, Turkhan and Mughal governors (1520-1700). Out of 40 governors of Arabs in 140 years, 21 were killed in action in Sindh, 13 were dismissed and only 6 including Muhammad Bin Qasim returned back . In case of Arghoons, Tarkhans and Mughals, there was a 175 years ‘civil war’ but it was suppressed, as local Muslims uprisings were acts of infidels and had to be stopped by use of force and sword. The collection of taxes under Mughals from Thatta Sarkar stood reduced to 20 percent in 1665 AD, as against that in 1600 AD, due to the long civil war started by local tribes all over Sindh. [28]
Kalhora rule of Sindh began in 1701 when Mian Yar Muhammad Kalhoro was invested with title of Khuda Yar Khan and was made governor of Upper Sindh sarkar by royal decree of the Mughals.[29].Later, he was made governor of Siwi through imperial decree. He founded a new city Khudabad after he obtained from Aurangzeb a grant of the tract between the Indus and the Nara and made it capital of his kingdom.[30]. Thenceforth, Mian Yar Muhammad became one of the imperial agents or governors. Later he extended his rule to Sehwan and Bukkur and became sole ruler of Northern and central Sindh, except Thatto which was still under administrative control of Mughal Empire. During this period Sindh witnessed its independent status as country besides, disintegration imposed by Nadar Shah. [31] Kalhora Rule ended with Coup d’etat by Talpurs in 1783 A.D.[32],[33]
The reign of the Kalhora was interrupted by three acute spasms of civil war;the first on the death of Noor Muhammad Kalhoro in 1754, the second on the deposition of Sarfraz Khan Kalhoro in 1775, and the third and fatal internecine conflict that was ended by suppression of Kalhora by Talpur [34].
The social conditions of Sindh during Kalhora period were adversely affected by warfare and internal strife. The country was ruined; the unity and territorial integrity of the country had been impaired. The political conditions of Sindh during the last days of Kalhora rule had been marked with warfare leading to total of the ruling class. Afghan position in Sindh played a havoc with Sindh economy .Madad Khan who fell on the Sindhi people looting, killing and burning their homes and their fields and gardens.[35]. Top of it diseases prevailed and thousands of people died in the ensuing epidemics [36]
Hindus, in the early period of Kalhora Rule were independent local rulers in the south-east and north of Sindh. Kalhoras encouraged Hindus to serve in their governments. [37] It paved way for Hindus to migrate from Punjab to Sindh. In this time Hindus became important segment of Sindhi society. It took them no time in getting second to none position in commerce and local as well as foreign trade.[38]
Mian Adam Shah Kalhoro inducted Gidwanis in his administration, Mian Noor Muhammad appointed Divan Adomal as his Commander and Hindus, those were near & dear to Mian Shahal Muhammad were later on known as Shahanis [39]In Kalhora Rule we find no any incident of Hindu-Muslim conflict, communalism or conversion.